These days, when global warming inactivists need to trot out somebody with some semblance of scientific credentials (from the dwindling supply who have made themselves available for such purposes), it seems that they increasingly turn to Roy Spencer, a Principal Research Scientist at the University of Alabama.

Evolution and Intelligent Design (80839-C1-R9999)

Add a new resolution as follows:

WHEREAS, the United Methodist Church has for many years supported the separation of church and State (paragraph 164, Book of Discipline, 2004, p. 119),

THEREFORE BE IT RESOLVED that the General Conference of the United Methodist Church go on record as opposing the introduction of any faith-based theories such as Creationism or Intelligent Design into the science curriculum of our public schools.

Rationale

Creationism and Intelligent Design are appropriate topics in public education classes such as comparative religion, literature, or philosophy since scientific method incorporates critical thinking processes.  All truth is God’s truth.   The promotion of religion or any particular religion in the public schools is contrary to the First Amendment.

Ironically, as the Eugenics movement came to the United States, the churches, especially the Methodists, the Presbyterians, and the Episcopalians, embraced it.
Methodist churches around the country promoted the American Eugenics Society “Fitter Family Contests” wherein the fittest families were invariably fair skinned and well off. Methodist bishops endorsed one of the first books circulated to the US churches promoting eugenics. Unlike the battles over evolution and creationism, both conservative and progressive church leaders endorsed eugenics.  The liberal Rev. Harry F. Ward, professor of Christian ethics and a founder of the Methodist Federation for Social Service, writing in Eugenics, the magazine of the American Eugenic Society, said that Christianity and Eugenics were compatible because both pursued the “challenge of removing the causes that produce the weak. Conservative Rev. Clarence True Wilson, the General Secretary of the Methodist Episcopal Board of Temperance, Prohibition and Public Morals, and the man chosen to debate Clarence Darrow after William Jennings Bryan’s death, believed that only the white Aryan race was the descendent of the lost tribes of Israel.  Methodists were active on the planning committees of the Race Betterment Conferences held in 1914, and 1915.  In the 1910s, Methodist Churches hosted forums in their churches to discuss eugenics. In the 1920s, many Methodist preachers submitted their eugenics sermons to contests hosted by the American Eugenics Society.  By 1927, when the American Eugenics Society formed its Committee on the Cooperation with Clergymen, Bishop Francis McConnell, President of the Methodist Federation for Social Service served on the committee. In 1936, he would chair the roundtable discussion on Religion and Eugenics at the American Eugenics Society Meeting.  The laity of the church also took up the cause of eugenics. In 1929, the Methodist Review published the sermon “Eugenics: A Lay Sermon” by George Huntington Donaldson. In the sermon, Donaldson argues, “the strongest and the best are selected for the task of propagating the likeness of God and carrying on his work of improving the race.”
Both the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South promoted eugenics.  Most of the time, church advocates of eugenics supported positive eugenics—essentially careful selection of mates. Nevertheless, sterilization became an acceptable kind of eugenics along with marriage laws limiting marriage between whites and non-whites. Some annual conferences supported such laws and a few opposed them.
Indiana passed the first forced sterilization law in 1907; eventually 33 states passed similar laws.  Most used  Harry Laughlin’s model law that provided for the sterilization of “feeble minded, insane, criminalistic, epileptic, diseased, blind, deaf, deformed, and dependent” including “orphans, ne’er do wells, tramps, homeless, and paupers.” Virginia passed in 1924 a sterilization law based on the Laughlin model and on the same day passed a law making marriage between a white person and a non-white person a felony.
Thirty-three US States eventually passed laws authorizing sterilization of criminals, the mentally ill, the “feeble minded”, Sterilization of the allegedly mentally ill continued into the 1970s in several states, by which time about 60,000 Americans had been involuntarily sterilized.  In 1933, Hitler’s Nazi government used Laughlin’s Model Law as the basis for their sterilization law that led to the sterilization of some 350,000 people.

Note also that The Petition is amended as follows:

Delete everything from “we direct…” to the end of the petition.
Change the title of Petition 81175 from “An Apology for Support of Eugenics” to:  “Repentance for Support of Eugenics” on both page 421 and 424.

Of course, not only were the data consistent, but Pielke did not even know which statistical test to apply to show support for his thesis

And yet, there seem to be some people who have come to believe the arguments by Global Warming Deniers, and it should not come as too big a surprise that there is a significant overlap between those who support the scientifically vacuous position of Intelligent Design and Global Warming Deniers.

Robert Hazen

On the other hand, every student can benefit from an examination of the epistemological arguments that underlie this case. The fundamental distinction between science and religion as ways of knowing was central to the Dover case, and can serve to develop the critical thinking skills of all students. Of special relevance is the exploration of “gaps” in our scientific understanding. ID proponents point to these gaps (leaps of “irreducible complexity”) in their invocation of a designer. Scientists, on the other hand, see such gaps as opportunities for further research and exploration, especially in instances of “emergent complexity,” such as the origin of life.

05-14-2008: Note: During my final editing I switched from to an earlier version of the article and lost many edits. I have attempted to restore the article to its original state.

• “ID and the College Classroom: Should we ‘teach the controversy’?”. Presented several times during 2006-2007 as the Dover, Pennsylvania intelligent design trial evoked much debate. [PPT]
• Achieving Scientific Literacy: A Catechism for Science Education Reform”. This is my basic lecture on how to design science courses for undergraduates who are not science majors. [PPT]

There are many excellent resources available online and I recently ran across a conference organized by John C. Avise and Francisco J. Ayala called In the Light of Evolution I: Adaptation and Complex Design

In the presentation that caught my initial interest, Hazen explains the various steps necessary for the origin of life and defines complexity and shows how complexity can increase. I have combined notes on his lecture with additional papers and presentations by Hazen, in order to outline that which many creationists insist, does not exist: a scientific explanation of the origins of life.

I predict that ID creationists will be quick to argue that these are just so stories, and yet, these are stories which present testable hypotheses. And thus I invited ID creationists to present the best explanation as to how ID explains these data?

Seems fair enough.

Supporting slides can be found here. In the presentation he explains the various steps necessary for the origin of life and defines complexity and shows how complexity can increase. The talk has two objectives

1. Describe life’s origins in terms of a sequence of emergent processes
2. Propose a predictive, quantitative model of complex systems

Three reasonable assumptions are made about the origin of life

1. First life forms were carbon based
2. Life’s origin was a chemical process relying on water, air and rock (raw materials)
3. The origin of life required a sequence of emergent chemical steps of increasing complexity

From the simplicity of a geochemical world to the complexity of a biochemical world

Emergence

Emergent phenomena arise from the interactions among numerous agents. Their collective behavior is much greater than that of the individual particles. Examples include sand dunes, galaxies (spirals), ant colonies.

Sand dunes and spiral galaxies: Natural emergent phenomena

And for example the slime mold, Dictyostelium which basic response to local chemical gradients results in complexity. Similarly, many individual neurons collectively form consciousness. Emergence happens at all scales: molecules, cells, organisms.

Origin of life in 4 steps

Experimentally the origin of life is a tough problem so break it down

1. Emergence of biomolecules
2. Emergence of organized molecular systems
3. Emergence of self-replicating molecular systems
4. Emergence of natural selection

Emergence of biomolecules

The first step is pretty easy: use simple molecules to build larger molecules. Start with water (H2O), CO2, volcanic gases… The Miller Urey experiment showed how simple processes can create molecules found in life such as amino-acids, sugars, lipids, nucleic acid bases. There are many ways to make simple organic molecules. Examples in nature include the  “dense molecular clouds”. These clouds are studied in NASA chambers with temperatures as low as 10K while UV radiation is added. The resulting chemicals eventually rain down on early earth. Other examples include black smokers, and the deep mantle. So how do we study the processes that take place in black smokers?

Relevant PT articles

• Primordial Soup’s On: Scientists Repeat Evolution’s Most Famous Experiment
  

  Bada discovered that the reactions were producing chemicals called nitrites, which destroy amino acids as quickly as they form. They were also turning the water acidic—which prevents amino acids from forming. Yet primitive Earth would have contained iron and carbonate minerals that neutralized nitrites and acids. So Bada added chemicals to the experiment to duplicate these functions. When he reran it, he still got the same watery liquid as Miller did in 1983, but this time it was chock-full of amino acids. Bada presented his results this week at the American Chemical Society annual meeting in Chicago.

Hazen Powerpoint Lectures:

• What factors promote the emergence of biocomplexity”. This lecture was delivered at the first Kavli Futures Workshop (“From Nano to Bio”) in Ilulliset, Greenland (June 2007). [PPT]
• “From Geo to Bio: The emergence of biochemical complexity”. This lecture was delivered as the NSF Biosciences Distinguished Lectureship presentation in June, 2007. [PPT]
• “Genesis: The scientific quest for life’s origins”. This lecture, based on my book of the same name, is aimed at a general audience and has been presented at many universities and public lecture series. [PPT]

Relevant Articles:

• H. James Cleaves, John H. Chalmers, Antonio Lazcano, Stanley L. Miller and Jeffrey L. BadaA Reassessment of Prebiotic Organic Synthesis in Neutral Planetary Atmospheres, Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, Volume 38, Number 2, pp. 105-115 April, 2008

Abstract The action of an electric discharge on reduced gas mixtures such as H₂O, CH₄ and NH₃ (or N₂) results in the production of several biologically important organic compounds including amino acids. However, it is now generally held that the early Earth’s atmosphere was likely not reducing, but was dominated by N₂ and CO₂. The synthesis of organic compounds by the action of electric discharges on neutral gas mixtures has been shown to be much less efficient. We show here that contrary to previous reports, significant amounts of amino acids are produced from neutral gas mixtures. The low yields previously reported appear to be the outcome of oxidation of the organic compounds during hydrolytic workup by nitrite and nitrate produced in the reactions. The yield of amino acids is greatly increased when oxidation inhibitors, such as ferrous iron, are added prior to hydrolysis. Organic synthesis from neutral atmospheres may have depended on the oceanic availability of oxidation inhibitors as well as on the nature of the primitive atmosphere itself. The results reported here suggest that endogenous synthesis from neutral atmospheres may be more important than previously thought.

• Brandes, J.A., R.M. Hazen, H.S. Yoder, Jr., and G.D. Cody (2000) “Early pre- and post-biotic synthesis of alanine: an alternative to the Strecker synthesis.” In Perspectives in Amino Acid and Protein Geochemistry. (G.A. Goodfriend, M.J. Collins, M.L. Fogel, S.A. Macko, and J.F. Wehmiller, eds.). Oxford University Press, NY. pp. 41-59
• Cody, G.D., R.M. Hazen, J.A. Brandes, H.J. Morowitz, H.S. Yoder, Jr. (2001) “Geochemical roots of autotrophic carbon fixation: Hydrothermal experiments in the system citric acid, H2O-(±FeS)-(±NiS).” Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65, 3557-3576.
• Hazen, R.M. (2001) “Life’s rocky start.” Scientific American, 284, #4, 76-85.

Take gold tube reactors, seal ingredients. Add high pressure and temperature and analyze. Especially Carbon Carbon bonds: Small molecules become larger molecules through the addition of CH2 groups (Fisher- Tropsch (FT) synthesis). So let’s take CO2, H2 and H20, iron metal catalyst, 300C, 500 atm, 24 hrs.

Relevant Publications Hazen Publications

• Robert M Hazen et al High pressure and the origin of life 2002 J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 14 11489-11494
• Cody et al Chemistry and Origins of Living Systems Astrobiology. September 1, 2001, 1(3): 293-316.

The results showed an ‘explosion’ of molecules, not just chain molecules but also other products.

A similar process called Hydroformylation (add CO groups) is used to form carboxilic acid (important formetabolism). Now study FT and hydroformylation as function of minerals added. With cobalt and Nickel CO groups arise, FT synthesis happens almost everywhere. An “explosion” of molecules are generated in these vents.

Self assembling amphiphiles

When amphiphiles are exposed to water, they are ‘forced’ to form vesicles. So the question is: How to form such amphiphiles, since they self assemble into bilayer vesicles.

Hazen Powerpoint Lectures:

• “Hydrothermal production of amphiphilic molecules from pyruvate.” Presented at the American Chemical Society Spring Meeting (San Diego, April, 2001). [PPT]

Relevant Articles:

Hazen, R.M. and D. Deamer (2006) “Hydrothermal reactions of pyruvic acid: synthesis, selection, and self-assembly of amphiphilic molecules.” Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 37, 143-152.

Abstract Selection and self-assembly of organic compounds in aqueous phases must have
been a primary process leading to emergent molecular complexity and ultimately to the origin of
life. Facile reactions of pyruvic acid under hydrothermal conditions produce a complex mixture
of larger organic molecules, some of which are amphiphiles that readily self-assemble into cell-
sized vesicular structures. Chemical characterization of major components of this mixture
reveals similarities to the suite of organic compounds present in the Murchison carbonaceous
chondrite, some of whose molecules also self-assemble into membranous vesicles. Physical
properties of the products are thus relevant to understanding the prebiotic emergence of
molecular complexity. These results suggest that a robust family of prebiotic reaction pathways
produces similar products over a range of geochemical and astrochemical environments.

Hydrothermal Production of Amphiphilic molecules form pyruvate

Another experiment, this time with pyruvic acid at conditions mimicking hydrothermal environments.

Amphiphiles form which form vesicles

Conclusions

Similarities between our experimental products and Murchison meteorite organics suggest a similar robust polymerization chemistry.

Chirality

Chirality is important but what is chirality? Molecules have a ‘mirror’ image which cannot be formed through rotation of the molecule. These are truly different forms, just like a right and left hand. When amino acids are formed, they typically occur in equal quantities of left and right handed forms and yet life as we know it is almost exclusively left handed.

Relevant PT Articles

• Chirality of life: Another false positive?
  • Chirality, the molecular version of right- and left-handedness, has intrigued chemists ever since Pasteur found mirror-image tartaric acid crystals. The synthesis of molecules in a single chiral form is usually achieved by using a chiral entity from the outset. But in some reactions the formation of a chiral product seems to be further amplified. Most current explanations implicate autocatalysis as the source of this asymmetry. An alternative mechanism is demonstrated this week. This new approach generates a strong bias towards one chiral form from a small initial imbalance, based on the equilibrium solid–liquid phase behaviour of amino acids. As this takes place in aqueous solution, the process might explain how a prebiotic world, with left- and right-handed molecules present in equal numbers, could turn into a living world where biomolecules favour one chiral form
• The Left Hand of Darwin
  • One long-standing question in understanding the origin of life is the so-called “chirality problem”. While this is an unresolved question in our understanding of the origin of life, it is used by anti-evolutionists to beat evolutionary theory over the head. As we never tire of telling folk, the origin and subsequent evolution if life are two distinct issues.

Hazen Powerpoints:

• “Right and Left: Mineral surfaces and the origin of biochemical homochirality”. Explores possible roles of chiral mineral surfaces in the selection and concentration of chiral amino acids and sugars. I’ve given this lecture many times during 2006-2007. [PPT]
• “A combinatoric approach to the study of mineral-molecule interactions”. This lecture was delivered at the “Frontiers of Mineralogy” meeting in Cambridge England (June 2007) at a session I organized with Dimitri Sverjensky. [PPT]

Relevant Articles:

• Hazen, R.M. and D.S. Sholl (2003b) “Origins of biomolecular homochirality: selective molecular adsorption on crystalline surfaces.” Astrobiology 2, 598-599.
• Downs, R.T. and R.M. Hazen (2004) “Chiral indices of crystalline surfaces as a measure of enantioselective potential.” Journal of Molecular Catalysis 216, 273-285.
• Hazen, R.M. (2004) “Chiral crystal faces of common rock-forming minerals.” In G. Palyi, C. Zucchi and L Cagglioti, Eds. Progress in Biological Chirality. New York: Elsevier, Chapter 11, pp.137-151.
• Hazen, R.M. (2005) Genesis: The Scientific Quest for Life’s Origin. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 339 p.
• Hazen, R.M. (2005) “Genesis: Rocks, minerals and the geochemical origin of life.” Elements 1, #3 (June, 2005), 135-137.
• Hazen, R.M., T.R. Filley and G.A. Goodfriend (2001) “Selective adsorption of L- and D-amino acids on calcite: implications for biochemical homochirality.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (US), 98: 5487-5490.
• Asthagiri, A. and R.M. Hazen (2006) “An ab initio study of adsorption of alanine on the chiral calcite (2131) surface.” Molecular Simulation 33, 343-351
• Asthagiri, A, and R. M. Hazen (2008) An ab initio study of adsorption of aspartic acid on the chiral calcite (2131) surface. In preparation.

Chirality is important for life and medicine. Chiral impurities in Thalidomide which was used by pregnant women caused birth defects.

So how do we go from a racemic mixture to a homochiral mixture? There are a variety of proposals and Hazen prefers minerals to explain symmetry breaking. Minerals have facets and different facets bind to either left or right-handed molecules

Hazen’s proposal

1. Examine the occurrence of chiral mineral surfaces in nature (Hazen 2004; Downs & Hazen 2004).
2. Demonstrate chiral selectivity by mineral surfaces (Hazen et al. 2001; Castro-Puyana et al. 2007).
3. Deduce mineral-molecule interactions (Asthagiri & Hazen 2006; 2007).
4. Propose a general experimental research strategy (Hazen, Steele et al. 2005; Hazen 2006).

His work concludes that

• Chiral mineral surfaces are common.
• In oxides and silicates, larger chiral indices are often associated with the presence of both terminal cations and anions.
• Relatively large chiral indices are often associated with stepped and kinked surfaces.
• Calcite (214) crystal surfaces select D- and L-aspartic acid.
• They  did not observe selective adsorption of glutamic acid or alanine on calcite.
• Maximum selective adsorption occurs on terraced crystal faces. This fact suggests that chiral selection may occur along linear features.
• The alignment of chiral amino acids on calcite may lead to homochiral polymerization.

A combinatoric problem

How do we evaluate interactions among the numerous possible mineral-molecule pairs? We need a combinatoric approach. Automation using microarrays.

Conclusions

Many mineral surfaces have the potential for chiral selection of plausible prebiotic molecules.
Chirality problem – Calcite (lime stone, coral reefs) has wonderful chiral surfaces allowing left and right handed molecules to be separated.

Self replication and natural selection

Self replicating groups of molecules Kauffman or networks of molecules becomes self perpetuating (Kauffman, Packard 1986) or  Morowitz’s TCA cycle (citric acid). DNA world was likely preceeded by an RNA world: first self replicating molecule was a genetic polymer (and catalyst). RNA  construction in prebiotic world is however implausible and requires a preceding stage (PAH world, Lipid world)

Emergence of natural selection

Self replicating system, add mutations, add competition, and selection follows. Transition from non-living to living systems.

Szostak lab. Start with random sequences of RNA, in vitro process, remove non-binding strands, collect bound RNA, PCR amplify with errors, transcribe DNA to new RNA, repeat. Strands evolve to become well adapted. RNA Aptamer work.

Complexity defined

Need for quantitative models of complex systems Universal metric: Complexity is hard to define, depends on context. Complexity at many different scales and dimensionalities. Key to defining complexity is not structure but function. Szostak: Functional information: I as the fraction of configurations of a system [F(E)] that achives a specific degree of function (E)

I(E) = -log(2) [(F(E)]

Multiple functions means multiple values for I depending on functions Apply metric: How to test this? Lots of sequences and define the degree of function of those sequences. Use Avida (artificial life). Random Avido genomes from the set of 26 instructions. A small fraction will have one or more logic functions.

How to increase Complexity

1. Increase the number of interacting agents.
2. Increase the diversity of interacting agents.
3. Increase selective pressures by environmental cycling

Relevant Articles

• Hazen, R.M., P.L. Griffin, J.M. Carothers and J.W.Szostak (2007) Functional information and the emergence of biocomplexity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104, 8574-8581.
• Hazen, R. M. (2007) The emergence of chemical complexity: An Introduction. In L. Zaikowski and J. M. Friedrich [editors], Chemical Evolution I: Chemical Change across Space and Time. American Chemical Society Symposium, pp.2-14.

Quantify complexity using Avida. Use the following ‘phenotypes’: Addition, subtraction, NOT, NAND, ORN, OR, ANDN, NOR, XOR and EQU How many of one task exist ? How many of any task? How many different tasks?

Using 300 command Avida genomes and 10^7 trials, NAND function appears in 1 out of every 1000 genomes. We see gaps, gaps in the same spots. Sometimes random outliers. When we use different length genomes, we observe different gaps and outliers. Why do these gaps exist? Is there a Universal characteristics?

Distribution of the not/and (NAND) function in 300-line Avida genomes in a randomly generated sample of 107 genomes. The degree of function, E, is the number of times NAND is executed by the genome, whereas functional information, I (in bits), is -log2 of the fraction of all sequences that achieves at least that degree of function, F(E). Note the discontinuities, which are a recurrent feature in these experiments.

LEFT The frequency of the ADD function in 100-, 200-, 300-, and 500-line linear Avida genomes in randomly generated samples of 10⁶ genomes. Degree of function, E, is the number of times the ADD function is executed by the genome, whereas functional information, I (in bits), is –log₂ of the fraction of all sequences that achieves at least that degree of function, F(E). Note that maximum E increases with genome length.

RIGHT Schematic representation of four discrete functional classes, or “islands,” of solutions that display function. The vertical axis is degree of function, E, whereas the horizontal plane represents a two-dimensional projection in sequence space. The number of sequences with degree of function E corresponds to the area intersected by the horizontal plane at that height along the E axis. Increasing E above the heights of the flat-topped islands A and B will result in discontinuities in the function E versus I, as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. Island C is a cone-shaped distribution, and island D represents a discrete solution of the type that might not be discovered in random sampling experiments.

Observation: Sand dunes form at a critical density. Galaxies spiral arms at critical density. Swarm raiding ants require a critical number before they start their raids. Many reactions such as  vesicle formation, condensation reactions all have critical number. The Concentration of agents is important.

Example for Avida

Start with highly functional genome 73 subtractions. Test every point mutation. Impact on functionality. 93% are neutral, tiny fraction lead to higher functionality, larger fraction detrimental.

Proposal

Optimize experiments in origins of life. This means that molecular concentrations are essential. And ‘messy’ experiments may promote emergence (more interacting players) Design experiments that mimic environmental cycles since such cycling environmental conditions (wet/dry, free/thaw, etc)  lead to complexity.

Explore more resources, courtesy of Robert Hazen

• Publications Lecture PowerPoint Presentations of Recent Lectures
• Lecture Abstracts and PowerPoint Presentations

The researcher prepared some microscopic drawings of the seeds, pointing out that earlier researchers had stated that the alkaloids were present in the outer layer, and that the endosperm and the embryo are free from alkaloids, although one researcher reported trace amounts of alkaloids.

To detect the presence of alkaloids a solution of iodine in potassium iodide was used to stain the alkaloids, even though it also reacts with starches.

Visual inspection showed that the endosperm and the embryo were wholly free of staining, showing the absence of alkaloids in these parts of the seeds.

The thesis also discusses the oils extracted from mature and immature seeds, observing that the former were yellowish in colour while the latter one was dark green.

James Hansen et al have released a report outlining the case for CO2

Paleoclimate data show that climate sensitivity is ~3°C for doubled CO2, including only fast feedback processes. Equilibrium sensitivity, including slower surface albedo feedbacks, is ~6°C for doubled CO2 for the range of climate states between glacial conditions and icefree Antarctica. Decreasing CO2 was the main cause of a cooling trend that began 50 million years ago, large scale glaciation occurring when CO2 fell to 425±75 ppm, a level that will be exceeded within decades, barring prompt policy changes. If humanity wishes to preserve a planet similar to that on which civilization developed and to which life on Earth is adapted, paleoclimate evidence and ongoing climate change suggest that CO2 will need to be reduced from its current 385 ppm to at most 350 ppm. The largest uncertainty in the target arises from possible changes of non-CO2 forcings. An initial 350 ppm CO2 target may be achievable by phasing out coal use except where CO2 is captured and adopting agricultural and forestry practices that sequester carbon. If the present overshoot of this target CO2 is not brief, there is a possibility of seeding irreversible catastrophic effects.

Read more at 350ppm or bust

The ‘argument’

Per your request, I am forwarding two more examples of plant species, which DEFY Darwinian evolution.

Examples :

1. The ” jimson weed “

Scientific name : Datura stramonium. This is a basic plant that grows wild, like most other weeds, namely in various parts of the United States. However, this weed is toxic. Its roots, stems and leaves all contain trace amount of natural poisons, including several alkaloid compounds. And yet, the MOST toxic area of the plant is found in the seed pod. This pod is about the size of a walnut and is covered with prickly thorns. Why all the thorns ? They serve NO practical purpose in the growth of the plant, at any stage in its life cycle. Therefore, why the need for all these thorns, located around a pod of toxic seeds ? Does the plant KNOW it is lethal ?
IMPOSSIBLE. It is a PLANT . It has no brain, no central nervous system, no subjective thought process, etc. Why then, would it have added this feature at some point in time, according to evolutionists, and established for itself all these thorns, that serve no purpose in the growth of the plant ? Its contents, by the way are NOT lethal to other plants; only animals. Therefore, could plants know that animals are looming about ? NO. Again, it is impossible ! They have no ability for any analytical thought process. They also have no sensory perception, like animals, so they would not know of potential danger from its toxic seeds. How and why would it possess this defense mechanism ?

Easy. The plant was CREATED by an intelligent designer from the start. Why you ask ? Simple. There IS a benefit to all those toxic seeds. They have been used for medicinal purposes for years. It’s just that, in mass quantity, if consumed by wild animals or humans, they could be potentially fatal. Thus, Creationists can easily explain, through basic scientific observation, the existence of the jimson weed. Evolutionists hate examples, like the jimson weed, because it DISPROVES the deductive reasoning used to justify evolution.

The scientific explanation

Let’s now see how science explains the origin and evolution of thorns and why there are plants which have thorns protecting the seed pods when the seeds themselves are toxic.

Co-evolution in plants

A good review paper of coevolution of defenses in plants is found in Rausher’s  Co-evolution and plant resistance to natural enemies published in Nature,  vol. 411, Jun 2001. We have to remember that there are a variety of potential selective pressures that may guide the evolution of these defenses, that this is a process of co-evolution and that this is a process involving a variety of predators and threats. As I will show the answer to the “paradox” can be easily found when taking into account these issues. Plants have evolved an arsenal of defenses which include resistance through chemical defensive (for instance alkaloids),  induced defenses, and morphological defenses (trichomes (hairs and thorns), cell walls, etc ). Chemical defenses are typically seen as having evolved from metabolic by-products. In addition to resistance, plants also have developed tolerance as an effective co-evolutionary response. Tolerance reduces or eliminates the detrimental effect of damage or infection to the plant. Plants also deploy avoidance even though the plant is not mobile through for instance cryptic coloration.

The phenotypic interface of coevolution. Fitness of each individual involved in interspecific interactions is determined through reciprocal selection both caused and experienced by the phenotypes that mediate the interaction. This phenotypic interface typically involves performance traits that comprise a variety of behavioral, morphological, and physiological components (from Reciprocal Selection at the Phenotypic Interface of Coevolution)

Second of all, plants have been shown to be ‘jack of all trades’

Overall, our survey provides little evidence that genetic trade-offs between defensive traits significantly constrain the evolution of multiple defenses. To a large extent, plants appear to be jacks-of-all-trades, masters of all: they may successfully produce several types of defense without paying considerable trade-offs. Therefore, the original view that multiple defenses are costly and functionally redundant should be replaced by the idea that environmental variability and positive interactions among defenses can make many combinations of defenses possible and evolutionarily advantageous.

Julia Koricheva, Heli Nykanen, and Ernesto Gianoli Meta-analysis of Trade-offs among Plant Antiherbivore  Defenses: Are Plants Jacks-of-All-Trades, Masters of All? The American Naturalist vol. 163 , no . 4 , April 2004

So let’s see how we can explain the ‘paradox’ of Datura Stramonium, aka the Jimson Weed

Datura Stramonium (Jimson Weed)

First the origin of the common name Jimson Weed can be traced back to 1676

Although jimsonweed is synonymous with several species of Datura, this unusual common name is actually derived from D. stramonium. In 1676 British soldiers stationed in Jamestown, Virginia became intoxicated by D. stramonium when it was inadvertently included in their salads by the regimental cooks. The episode was widely publicized and the plant culprit became known as “Jamestown weed”, and later as jimsonweed.

The seeds, leaves, stem, roots and fruits all contain a variety of chemicals

The leaves, stem, root and fruits of Datura contain a battery of tropane alkaloids, the most potent of which are atropine, hyoscyamine and scopolamine. These alkaloids affect the central nervous system, including nerve cells of the brain and spinal cord which control many direct body functions and the behavior of men and women. They may also affect the autonomic nervous system, which includes the regulation of internal organs, heartbeat, circulation and breathing. One autonomic response of atropine is the dilation of pupils, once considered to be a beautiful and mysterious look in Italian women. In fact, belladonna means “beautiful lady,” so named because sap from the closely related belladonna plant (Atropa belladonna) was used as eye drops to dilate the pupils.

In addition to being used as hallucinogens during religious ceremonies, or as sexual stimulants by prostitutes, or as anesthetics (novocain) or as a drug against motion sickness. One may very well conclude that the ‘designer’ surely had a wide range in applications in mind while creating these drugs…

First of all let’s describe Datura stramonium

©Patrick J. Alexander. Provided by Patrick J. Alexander.

As you can observe, the seed pods are protected by thorns and yet, the seeds themselves are toxic to mammals although cattle is known, under stress, to eat the weeds.

Classification:
Datura stramonium L.

The Family Solanaceae contains potatoes, eggplant, tobacco as well as nightshade. Another data point: Jimson Weed like most of its family members have been imported from tropical areas. Note that the toxicity of the Jimson Weed is not limited to the seed pods, but includes the leaves, stem, and other parts of the plant. This is important when discussing the relevance of toxic defenses against herbivore insects.

The hypothesis

So now the evolutionary hypothesis

Co-evolution between plants and their natural enemies is generally believed to have generated much of the Earth’s biological diversity. A process analogous to co-evolution occurs in agricultural systems, in which natural enemies adapt to crop resistance introduced by breeding or genetic engineering. Because of this similarity, the investigation of resistance mechanisms in crops is helping to elucidate the workings of co-evolution in nature, while evolutionary principles, including those derived from investigation of co-evolution in nature, are being applied in the management of resistance in genetically engineered crops.

review article Co-evolution and plant resistance to natural enemies Nature 411, 857-864 (14 June 2001)

Thus, in order to understand the evolution of Datura Stramonium, we have to understand its evolutionary history, the original environment(s) in which this evolution took place, and the selective pressures that existed and the genetic variation. In addition we need to show that there are selectable, inheritable traits.

In other words, ecology and molecular biology all need to work together to establish answers to these questions.

Evolution of mixed strategies

In this study we present a simple optimization model for the evolution of defensive strategies (tolerance and resistance) of plants against their natural enemies. The model specifically evaluates the consequences of introducing variable costs and benefits of tolerance and resistance and nonlinear cost-and-benefit functions for tolerance and resistance. Incorporating these assumptions, the present model of plant defense predicts different evolutionary scenarios, not expected by previous work. Basically, the presence of an adaptive peak corresponding to intermediate levels of allocation to tolerance and resistance can arise when the shape parameter of the cost function is higher than the corresponding of the benefit function. The presence of two alternatives peaks of maximum tolerance and maximum resistance occurs only when benefits of tolerance and resistance interact less than additive. Finally, the presence of one peak of maximum resistance or maximum tolerance depends on the relative values of the magnitude of costs for tolerance and resistance. An important outcome of our model is that under a plausible set of conditions, variable costs of tolerance and resistance can represent an important aspect involved in the maintenance of intermediate levels of tolerance and resistance, and in favoring adaptive divergence in plant defensive strategies among populations. The model offers a framework for future theoretical and empirical work toward understanding spatial variation in levels of allocation to different defensive strategies.

EVOLUTION OF MIXED STRATEGIES OF PLANT DEFENSE ALLOCATION AGAINST NATURAL ENEMIES, Evolution, Volume 58, Issue 8 (August 2004)

As such we come to realize that herbivores included both the grazing types (mammals) as well leaf eating types (herbivorous insects).

Thus we need to explain how alkaloid content (the poisonous part of Jimson Weed) is under selective pressure from insect herbivory and how thorns can be both under selective pressures from insect and grazing mammals.

Insect Herbivory and alkaloid content

The first step is to link alkaloid content to insect herbivory.

Abstract.—Although insect herbivory is frequently assumed to be responsible for the maintenance of plant secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, the assumption is controversial and experimental evidence for this assumption is sparse. We examined natural selection on the two major alkaloids present in the leaves of Datura stramonium and found that both alkaloids came under active selection. We found negative directional selection for scopolamine (natural selection acting to reduce scopolamine levels) and stabilizing selection for hyoscyamine (natural selection acting to maintain an intermediate level of hyoscyamine). We also present evidence that insect herbivores act as the agents of selection on these alkaloids. Finally, we show that there were no trade-offs in resistance to different species of insects.

Irene Shonle, Joy Bergelson (2000) EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF THE TROPANE ALKALOIDS OF DATURA STRAMONIUM L. (SOLANACEAE) Evolution 54 (3) , 778-788

See also the various references to the above paper

Trichome defense and resistance to herbivorous insects

Then there is Trichome and thorn production. Trichromes are “any protrusion from the epidermis“  and include hairs as well as thorns. For Datura Stramonium, trichromes have been shown to be under selective pressure against insects.

This study assessed the role of leaf trichome density as a component of resistance to herbivores, in six populations of Datura stramonium. Phenotypic selection on plant resistance was estimated for each population. A common garden experiment was carried out to determine if population differences in leaf trichome density are genetically based. Among population differences in leaf trichome density, relative resistance and fitness were found. Leaf trichome density was strongly positively correlated to resistance across populations. In 5 out of 6 populations, trichome density was related to resistance, and positive directional selection on resistance to herbivores was detected in three populations. Differences among populations in mean leaf trichome density in the common garden suggest genetic differentiation for this character in Datura stramonium. The results are considered in the light of the adaptive role of leaf trichomes as a component of defence to herbivores, and variable selection among populations.

and

Abstract:
This study evaluated how natural selection act upon two proposed alternatives of defence (growth and resistance) against natural enemies in a common garden experiment using genetic material (full-sibs) from three populations of the annual plant Datura stramonium. Genetic and phenotypic correlations were used to search for a negative association between both alternatives of defence. Finally, the presence/absence of natural enemies was manipulated to evaluate the selective value of growth as a response against herbivory. Results indicated the presence of genetic variation for growth and resistance (1 – relative damage), whereas only population differentiation for resistance was detected. No correlation between growth and resistance was detected either at the phenotypic or the genetic level. Selection analysis revealed the presence of equal fitness benefits of growth and resistance among populations. The presence/absence of natural herbivores revealed that herbivory did not alter the pattern of selection on growth. The results indicate that both strategies of defence can evolve simultaneously within populations of D. stramonium.

Now we look at

Ian challenges ID proponents to finally do some science

So I have a modest proposal. I would like to invite Dr. Behe, or any other ID advocate, to predict which coagulation factors are present in Amphioxus, search the Amphioxus genome database and report on whether the genes found match their predictions. The database is free, you can do it at home, and the only cost is your time.

Time for ID advocates to do some science. How about it?

Any Takers?

Why is all this nonsense a threat to science? The reason is Stein’s libelous conclusion that science is simply evil. In an April 21 interview on the Trinity Broadcast Network, Stein called the Nazi murder of children “horrifying beyond words.” Indeed. But what led to such horrors? Stein explained: “that’s where science in my opinion, this is just an opinion, that’s where science leads you. Love of God and compassion and empathy leads you to a very glorious place. Science leads you to killing people.”

According to Stein, science leads you to “killing people.” Not to cures and vaccines, not to a deeper understanding of nature, not to wonders like computers and cellphones, and certainly not to a better life. Nope. Science is murder.

“Expelled” is a shoddy piece of propaganda that props up the failures of Intelligent Design by playing the victim card. It deceives its audiences, slanders the scientific community, and contributes mightily to a climate of hostility to science itself. Stein is doing nothing less than helping turn a generation of American youth away from science. If we actually come to believe that science leads to murder, then we deserve to lose world leadership in science. In that sense, the word “expelled” may have a different and more tragic connotation for our country than Stein intended.